¹Enobong Mbang Akpambang, Ph.D,²Olufunmilayo Esther Rotimi-Aremu

¹Department of Public Law, Faculty of Law, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

²Rotimi Aremu & Associates, Barristers & Solicitors, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria

While procreation through copulation has remained the conventional means for pregnancy and beginning the human family, advances in medical technology has now demonstrated that coitus is no more the absolute process for childbearing. Individuals like infertile couples, single persons, lesbians and gay partners have now resorted to assisted reproductive technology (ART) and surrogacy arrangements in order to start a family. Transcending the hope and joy it offers to these groups of individuals who may have been incapable of having children of their own, this new procreative technology has stirred up a number of ethical and legal questions. The focal aim of the article was to investigate the state of the law for ascertaining the legal parentage and nationality of a child born through ART. Determination of these sensitive issues is vital because of the possibility of a child conceived through ART having more than two parents, especially where surrogacy, donor sperm and donor eggs are involved. The article adopted desk-based and comparative research methods by relying on both primary and secondary sources of information. The various sources of information were appraised and deductions derived from them were presented descriptively. The article revealed inter alia, that in some of the countries examined, ART practice is regulated and the courts, in a number of instances, have been engaged to resolve controversies pertaining to the legal parentage and nationality of children born through ART procedure. But in Nigeria, the practice is unregulated by law and there is dearth of decided cases on the subject. The authors therefore, recommended that in view of the increasing number of individuals turning to ART in Nigeria, including cross-border surrogacy, to build families, there is need for definite ART legislation in Nigeria so as to assist in resolving these problems and other related ones. Nigerian lawmakers could examine similar laws from other foreign jurisdictions and use them as potential guide to fashion out a domestic legislation in Nigeria. The Nigerian courts could also learn from decisions from other jurisdictions so as to know how to determine related cases as they occur in Nigeria.

Assisted Reproductive Technology, In Vitro Fertilisation, Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer, Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, Intrauterine Insemination, Legal Parentage, Nationality, Surrogacy

1) Achilli, Chiara et. al., “The Role of Immunotherapy in In Vitro Fertilisation and Recurrent Pregnancy Loss: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis” (2018) 110(6) Fertility and Sterility, 1089-1100; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.07.004 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

2) Adelakun, Olanike S., “The Concept of Surrogacy in Nigeria: Issues, Prospects and Challenges” (2018) 18 African Human Rights Law Journal, 605-624; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2018/v18n2a8 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

3) Adewumi, Afolasade A., “The Need for Assisted Reproduction Technology in Nigeria” (2012) 2(1) University of Ibadan Law Journal, 19-41.

4) Ajayi, R. A. & O. J. Dibosa-Osadolor, “Stakeholders’ Views on Ethical Issues in Practice of In-Vitro Fertilisation and Embryo Transfer in Nigeria” (2011)15(3) African Journal of Journal of Reproductive Health, 73-80.

5) Akintola, Simisola & Olohikhuae Egbokhare, “Parenthood: Is the Law in Nigeria Fit for Assisted Reproductive Technology” (2018) Indian Journal of Medical Ethics Online, 1-6; DOI: https://doi.org/10.20529/IJME.2018.012 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

6) Akpambang, Enobong Mbang & Monica Amujo-Akomolafe, “Legal Position on Surrogacy Arrangements in Nigeria and Some Selected Jurisdictions,” (2020) 7(3) International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies, 18-39.

7) Alghrani, Amel & Danielle Griffiths, “The Regulation of Surrogacy in the United Kingdom for Reform”, (2017) 29(2) Child and Family Law Quarterly, 165-186.

8) Anne R. Dana, “The State of Surrogacy Laws: Determining Legal Parentage for Gay Fathers” (2010) 18 Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy 353-390.

9) Appleton, Susan Frelich, “Presuming Women: Revisiting the Presumption of Legitimacy in the Same-Sex Couples Era” (2006) 86 Boston University Law Review, 227-294.

10) Arons, Jessica, Future Choices: Assisted Reproductive Technologies and the Law, (Washington DC: Center for American Progress, December 2007); retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/article/future-choices-assistedreproductive-technologies-and-the-law (accessed on 30 December 2022).

11) Asch, R. H., et. al., “Pregnancy after Translaparoscopic Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer” (1984) 2 Lancet, 1034-1036.

12) Bamgbopa, Kehinde T. et. al., “Public Perception on Ethics in the Practice of Assisted Reproductive Technologies in Nigeria” (2018) 3(3) Global Reproductive Health, e13; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/GRH.0000000000000013 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

13) Bello, Folasade A., Opeyemi R. Akinajo, & Oladapo Olayemi, “In Vitro Fertilisation, Gamete Donation and Surrogacy: Perceptions of Women Attending an Infertility Clinic in Ibadan, Nigeria” (2014) 18(2) African Journal of Reproductive Health, 127-133.

14) Bernstein, Fred A., “This Child Does Have Two Mothers...And a Sperm Donor Visitation” (1996) 22(1) N. Y. U. Review of Law & Social Change, 1-58.

15) Brake, Elizabeth & Joseph Millum, “Procreation and Parenthood” In: N. Edward (ed.) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/parenthood/ (2 January 2023).

16) Braude, Peter & Sadia Muhammed, “Assisted Conception and the Law in the United Kingdom”, (2005) 327 BMJ Clinical Review, 978-981.

17) Brinsden, Peter R. & Richard P. Dickey, “An overview of Intrauterine Insemination and Ovulation Induction”, In: Richard P. Dickey, Peter R. Brinsden & Roman Pyrzak (eds.) Manual of Intrauterine Insemination and Ovulation Induction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

18) Chang, Wendy Y. & Alan H. DeCherney, “History of Regulation of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) in the USA: A Work in Progress” (2003) 6(2) Human Fertility, 64-70.

19) Chimbatata, Nathan B. W. & Chikondi Malimba, “Infertility in sub-Saharan Africa: A Woman’s Issue for How Long? A Qualitative Review of Literature,” (2016) 4 Open Journal of Social Sciences, 96-102; DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jss.2016.48012 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

20) Ciccarelli, Janice C. & Linda J. Beckman, “Navigating Rough Waters: An Overview of Psychological Aspects of Surrogacy” (2005) 61 (1) J. Soc. Issues, 21-43; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2005.00392.x.(accessed on 2 January 2023).

21) Coughlan, C., et. al., “Recurrent Implantation Failure: Definition and Management” (2014) 28(1) Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 14-38; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2013.08.011 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

22) Crockin, Susan L., “Growing Families in a Shrinking World: Legal and Ethical Challenges in Cross-border Surrogacy” (2013) 27 Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 733-741.

23) Daar, Judith F., “Accessing Reproductive Technologies: Invisible Barriers, Indelible Harms”, (2008) 23(1) Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice, 18-82.

24) De Bruijin, J. M., et. al., “Factors Affecting Pregnancy Outcome in a Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) Programme” (2003) 93(7) SAMJ, 532-536.

25) Devroey, P., et. al., “Pregnancy after Translaparoscopic Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer in a Patient with Sperm Antibodies (Letter)” (1986) 1 Lancet, 1329.

26) Dow, Katherine, “Looking into the Test Tube: The Birth of IVF on British Television” (2019) 63(2) Medical History, 189-208; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/mdh.2019.6 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

27) Elnashar, Aboubakar M.., “Opinion: Intrauterine Insemination,” (2004) 9(2) Middle East Fertility Society Journal, 101-106; NHS, “Intrauterine Insemination (IUI)”; retrieved from https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/artificial-insemination (accessed on 2 January 2023).

28) Fadare, J. O., & A. A. Adeniyi, “Ethical Issues in Newer Assisted Reproductive Technologies: A View from Nigeria” (2015) 18(7) Nigeria Journal of Clinical Practice, 57-61.

29) Farhi, Jacob, et. al., “Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer in Patients with Tubal Factor Infertility after Repeated Failure of Implantation with In Vitro Fertilisation-Embryo Transfer” (2000) 74(2) Fertility and Sterility, 390-393; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(00)00610-5 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

30) Fuscaldo, G., “What Makes a Parent? It’s Not Black or White” (2003) 29 Journal of Medical Ethics, 66-67.

31) Gerrits, T. & M. Shaw, “Biomedical Infertility Care in sub-Saharan Africa: A Social Science Review of Current Practices, Experiences and View Points”, (2010) 2(3) Facts, Views & Vision in ObyGyn, 194-207.

32) Greil, Arthur L. & Julia McQuillan, “Trying” Times: Medicalization, Intent, and Ambiguity in the Definition of Infertility” (2010) 24(2) Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 137-156; retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548- 1387.2010.01094.x (accessed on 30 December 2022).

33) Halper, Asher Bashiri, Katherine Ida & Raoul Orvieto, “Recurrent Implantation Failure- Update Overview on Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Future Directions” (2018) 16 Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 121-138.

34) Helen Szoke, “Surrogacy: All the Features of a Relationship that Could Go Wrong”, (2001) 28 Melbourne Journal of Politics, 55.

35) Holcomb, Morgan & Mary Patricia Byrn, “When Your Body is Your Business” (2010) 85(4) Washington Law Review, 647- 686.

36) Ikemoto, Lisa C., “The In/Fertile, the Too Fertile, and the Dysfertile” (1996) 47(4) Hastings Law Journal, 1007-1061.

37) Inhorn, Marcia C. & Pasquale Patrizio, “Rethinking Reproductive “Tourism” as Reproductive “Exile” (2009) 92(3) Fertility and Sterility, 904-906.

38) Ishii, Tetsuya, “Global Changes in the Regulation of Reproductive Medicine”, In: Michael K. Skinner (ed.) Encyclopedia of Reproduction, Second Edition (Academic Press, 2018), 380-386; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801238- 3.64907-3 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

39) Jones, Richard E. & Kristin H. Lopez, Human Reproductive Biology (Fourth Edition, Academic Press, 2014), 283-299; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-382184-3.00015-5 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

40) Jose-Miller, Alaina B., Jennifer W. Boyden & Keith A. Frey, “Infertility”, (2007) 75(6) American Family Physician, 849-856.

41) Kelly, Lorraine, “In Vitro Fertilisation: The Science and Ethics in the 21st Century” (2001) 7(1) Human Reproduction & Genetic Ethics, 15-20; DOI: 10.1179/hrge.7.1.u384347k75617561.

42) Kermani, Ebrahim J. & Bonnie A. Weiss, “Biological Parents Regaining Their Rights: A Psycholegal Analysis of a New Era in Custody Disputes” (1995) 23(2) The Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 261-267.

43) Kha, Henry & Kelly Rankin, “Mater Semper Certa Est? Reconceiving Surrogacy Law in New Zealand” (2019) 9(12) New Zealand Family Law Journal, 172-178.

44) Knoppers, Bartha M. & Sonia LeBris, “Recent Advances in Medically Assisted Conception: Legal, Ethical and Social Issues” (1991) 17(4) American Journal of Law and Medicine, 329-361.

45) Krawiec, Kimberly D., “Altruism and Intermediation in the Market for Babies”, (2009) 66 Washington and Lee Law Review, 203-257.

46) Kuhnt, Anne-Kristin & Jasmin Passet-Wittig, “Families Formed through Assisted Reproductive Technology: Causes, Experiences, and Consequences in an International Context” (2022) 14 Reproductive BioMedicine and Society Online, 289- 296; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbms.2022.01.001 (accessed 30 January 2023).

47) Lones, Mark E., “A Christian Ethical Perspective on Surrogacy” (2016) 2(1) Bioethics in Faith and Practice, 21-33.

48) Macklin, Ruth, “Artificial Means of Reproduction and our Understanding of the Family” (1991) 21(1) The Hastings Center Report, 5-11; DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3563339.

49) McCandles, J. & S. Sheldon, “The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008 and the Tenacity of Sexual Family Form” (2010) 73 Modern Law Review 175.

50) Mohammed-Durosinlorun, Amina, et. al., “Use and Pattern of Previous Care Received by Infertile Nigerian Women”, (2019) 5(14) Fertility Research and Practice, 1-8; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40738-019-0068-6 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

51) Ombelet, Willem, et. al., “Intrauterine Insemination (IUI) as a First-line Treatment in Developing Countries and Methodological Aspects that Might Influence IUI Success” (2008) Human Reproduction, 64-72; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/den165 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

52) Oyelowo, Tolu, Mosby’s Guide to Women’s Health: A Handbook for Health Professionals (Missouri: Mosby, 2007).

53) Pennings. Guido, “Reproductive Tourism as Moral Pluralism in Motion” (2002) 28 Journal of Medical Ethics, 337-341.

54) Princewill, Chitu Womehoma & Ayodele Samuel Jegede, “Women’s Reproductive Autonomy and the Ethics of Baby Making: The Nigerian Case Study,” (2019) 7 Journal of Health Science, 327-336 at pp. 328, 332; DOI: https://doi.org/10.17265/2328-7136/2019.06.001 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

55) Robertson, John A., “Gay and Lesbian Access to Assisted Reproductive Technology” (2004) 55(2) Case Western Reserve Law Review, 323-372.

56) Rosenwaks, Zev & Nigel Pereira, “The Pioneering of Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection: Historical Perspectives” (2017)154(6) Reproduction, F71-F77; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1530/REP-17-0308 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

57) Sandelowski, Margarete & Sheryl de Lacey, “The Uses of a “Disease”: Infertility as Rhetorical Vehicle,” in Marcia C. Inhorn & Frank van Balen (eds.) Infertility Around the Globe: New Thinking on Childlessness, Gender, and Reproductive Technologies, (University of California Press, 2002).

58) Sanger, Carol, “Developing Markets in Baby-Making: In the Matter of Baby M” (2007) 30 Harvard Journal of Law & Gender, 67-97.

59) Scott, Elizabeth S., “Surrogacy and the Politics of Commodification” (2009) 72 Law and Contemporary Problems, 109-146.

60) Spar, Debora L., The Baby Business: How Money, Science, and Politics Drive the Commerce of Conception (Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard Business School Press, 2006), 72-73.

61) Stasi, Alessandro, “Maternal Surrogacy and Reproductive Tourism in Thailand: A Call for Legal Enforcement” (2015) 8 Ubon Ratchathani Law Journal, 17-36.

62) Stasi, Alessandro, “Protection for Children Born through Assisted Reproductive Technologies Act, B. E. 2558: The Changing Profile of Surrogacy in Thailand” (2017) 11 Clinical Medicine Insights Reproductive Health, 1-7; DOI: 10.1177/1179558117749603; retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5753847/ (accessed on 18 December 2022).

63) Stasi, Alessandro, “Read the First Print of Thai Surrogacy Laws?” (17 October, 2015) The Bangkok Post, 4.

64) Stenger, Robert L., “The Law and Assisted Reproduction in the United Kingdom and United States”, (1994-1995) 9(1) Journal of Law and Health, 135-161.

65) Storrow, Richard F., “Parenthood by Pure Intention: Assisted Reproduction and Functional Approach to Parentage” (2002) 53(2) Hastings Law Journal, 597-679.

66) Tannus, Samer et. al., “The Role of Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection in Non-Male Factor Infertility in Advanced Maternal Age” (2017) 32(1) Human Reproduction, 119-124; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dew298 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

67) Techagaisiyavanit, W., “Reproductive Justice Dilemma under the New Thai Law: Children Born out of Assisted Reproductive Technology Protection Act BE 2558” (2016) 45 Law J Fac Law, 201-214.

68) Tournaye, Herman, et. al., “Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer or In Vitro Fertilisation and Embryo Transfer for the Treatment of Male-factor Infertility: A Prospective Randomised Trial” (1992) 58(2) Fertility and Sterility, 344-350; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55195-4 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

69) Wald, Deborah H., “The Parentage Puzzle: The Interplay Between Genetic, Procreative Intent, and Parental Conduct in Determining Legal Parentage” (2007) 15(3) American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 379-411.

70) Weissman, Ariel et. al, “Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer among Patients with Repeated Implantation Failure”, (2013) 120(1) International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 70-73; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2012.07.018 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

71) Whittaker, Andrea, “Cross-border Assisted Reproduction Care in Asia: Implications for Access, Equity and Regulations” (2011) 19(37) Reproductive Health Matters, 107-116; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(11)37575-1 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

72) Whittaker, Andrea, “From “Mung Ming” to “Baby Gammy”: A Local History of Assisted Reproduction in Thailand” (2016) 2 Reproductive Biomedicine & Society Online, 71-78; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbms.2016.05.005 (accessed on 2 January 2023)

73) Wymelenberg, Suzanne, “New Technologies: The Ethical and Social Issues,” In: Suzanne Wymelenberg, et al. (eds.) Science and Babies: Private Decisions, Public Dilemmas (Washington DC: National Academies Press, 1990)

74) Yovich, J., “Transabdominal Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer,” In: J. G. Grudzinskas, et. al. (eds.) The Fallopian Tube: Clinical and Surgical Aspects (London: Springer-Verlag London Limited, 1994), 213-227 at p.213; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-1987-6_16 (accessed on 2 January 2023).

VOLUME 06 ISSUE 02 FEBRUARY 2023

There is an Open Access article, distributed under the term of the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits remixing, adapting and building upon the work for non-commercial use, provided the original work is properly cited.